Can Unsuccessful Tests Enhance Learning?

The testing effect is the phenomenon that testing enhances memory for previously studied content. Memory is particularly enhanced for items successfully retrieved during testing. Three experiments investigated the effects of testing before studying a time when participants were unlikely to successfully retrieve content. Participants read excerpts from an essay on vision. They were either asked about embedded concepts before reading the passage (test condition) or they read the passage for a longer time (read condition). In both conditions the tested concepts were highlighted (presented in bold letters or italics) to distinguish the effects of testing from attention direction. Although participants failed on initial tests, memory performance on a final posttest was better in the tested condition in all experiments. Retrieving the correct answer from memory does not appear to be the only reason for the testing effect— simply being asked seems to enhance future learning.